Piazza of St. Peters (begun 1656)

At the same time that he was working on the Throne, Bernini began work on the Piazza of St. Peters. Bernini used an interesting combination of shapes, like his work at San Andrea al Quirinale. The ovals and trapezoids that he used create a similarly dynamic, directional shape. Bernini wanted to create a shape that would recall the arms of the church embracing the faithful. His original design is not what we see today, however, because Bernini did not intend the opening onto the street that we see when we look at Saint Peters today. When creating the square, Bernini respected the space occupied by the Vatican buildings on the one side, but tore down the buildings on the other side.

The main focus of Bernini when creating this piazza was to create something that would not overpower the façade. Both wings have entrances built in to accommodate the side streets. Bernini intended that you would see the screen with narrow vistas inward, then, having entered into the oval, you would then enter into the trapezoid which would open into the large space of the piazza. Bernini wanted to create a series of unfolding spaces using the piazza and the outdoor space.

The order being used is the Tuscan order, but with no triglyph/metope frieze above it, as would be traditional. The material used throughout the square is travertine.

Throne of St. Peters (1657-66)

The throne of Saint Peters, neatly framed by the Baldacchino, was the original relic in the treasury of Saint Peters and is important in the church as a visual goal beyond that of the high altar. The carving that graces the high altar of Saint Peters now is intended as a remembrance of that original throne, much as the columns that frame the niches which surround the Baldacchino are meant to recall the first Christian church. The vacant throne is a medieval tradition which symbolizes the lordship of Christ, but the throne itself in this instance is also symbolic, through use of the Papal tiara, of Papal authority through Christ and Peter and the authority of the Church. Beyond that symbolism, the rays which spill out from behind the altar neatly frame the symbol of the dove of the Holy Spirit, meant to symbolize His presence in the church as well.

S. Andrea al Quirinale (1670-71)

Located on the Via del Quirinale, 29, 00184, in Rome (see map here), Bernini faced a huge problem when constructing this church. The site was long and narrow and parallel to the street, eliminating whatever plans he might have had for a more traditionally-shaped church. Begun in 1658 at the behest of Alexander II, Bernini coped with the difficult nature of the site by changing the axis of the church, placing the altar directly across from the door on the shorter axis rather than the more traditional long axis. The plan itself is very new, the shape the more dynamic oval that we saw in Michelangelo's work on the Capitoline Hill, but was also used by late 16^th century artists like Vignola in such buildings as San Andrea in Via Flaminia. This project was of extreme interest to Alexander II, and Bernini frequently discussed his plans for it with the Pope, fostering a personal relationship with Alexander not unlike the one which he had had with Urban VIII.

The exterior of San Andrea was completed in 1661, the interior followed not long afterwards in 1662-1665.

Looking at the exterior, it is clearly not the double-tabernacle facade that we are used to seeing and that you would have seen at that time around Rome. It features a single monumental order with an indication of a minor order on the portico. The portico itself relates interestingly to the half-circle lunette window above, seeming almost to have opened out of that space to leave an open hole. That same hemispherical shape is mirrored in the steps, which create a very strong rhythm when considered with the wings. The concave|convex|concave rhythm created by the portico and wings of the building is one of the most easily recognized motifs of the Baroque era in architecture. That rhythm focuses around the center of the facade, which is the monumental temple-front complete with triangular pediment. The nature of the portico forces Bernini to place the columns holding it up on trapezoidal rather than straight podiums, which creates a funneling effect and is a motif that will be echoed on the interior of the building.

The alternating oval- and rectangular-shaped side chapels create an interesting symmetry on the interior of the chapel. The columns around the altar match the exterior columns in that they are set on trapezoids and seem to funnel people in towards the high altar. Behind the high altar is a painted scene depicting the martyrdom of Saint Andrew, with his ascension carved in marble above, breaking the cornice. Above the high altar, the drum of the dome rises up and merges with the dome itself seamlessly, pierced by windows between the ribs, which are mirrored by rib marks on the floor. The dome is coffered as well as being ribbed, and the lantern features a painting of the dove of the holy spirit, meant to illustrate his presence in the church.

Santa Maria della Vittoria: Cornaro Chapel (1647-52)

Santa Maria della Vittoria is located on the Via 20 Settembre, 00187, in Rome (see map here). In 1647 Bernini was recruited to design and execute the chapel for the Cornaro family. He created a fantastic illusionistic space that I could literally fill an entire book talking about. I will have to keep this very brief to avoid that eventuality.

The central scene of Saint Teresa in ecstasy is set up on a dynamically curved, altar-like structure, complete with paired engaged columns on piers and a tiny pediment. The colored marble used in the construction of the altar adds to the theatrical feeling of the space. A hidden window above the statues of the Saint and the angel lets in light. Above, a painted illusionistic ceiling gives a vision of heaven to the Saint herself as well as the carved members of the Cornaro family who watch from box seats on the side walls of the chapel.

Baldacchino (1624-33)

The Baldacchino, taken from the word baldaquin, meant to refer to a covering used over shrines and thrones, was created to sit over the tomb of St. Peter in the center of St. Peters cathedral. Bernini was responsible for creating the Baldacchino as well as the niches for the large sculptures that sit in piers on four sides of the Baldacchino. The columns that hold up the covering are made to match the columns that decorate the niches on the second level, supposedly from the first Christian church. When creating the Baldacchino, the main problems that Bernini encountered had to do with the materials used. Being made primarily from bronze (stolen from the portico of the Pantheon), Bernini had to deal with the weight of his medium as well as the problem of how to cast it all. In order to cast it, Bernini had to create a foundry to cast the pieces together. When dealing with the weight, Bernini simply had to find a way to lighten the bronze. To do this, he covered wood and brick in bronze in some areas to keep the higher ares lighter. It helps that the Baldacchino is not actually a whole canopy, but a cornice framework with volutes rising to the highest levels of the structure. The volutes create tension to hold the covering together, while also allowing the top level to be light enough that it will not collapse upon itself.

In niches around it are four statues planned out by Bernini. However, only one is executed by him and that is the statue of Saint Longinus. At the time that it was first executed, it was the largest over-lifesize marble statue.

The columns of the Baldacchino are 38 meters high. It took three years just to cast the entire thing. The natural feeling throughout is the unifying cocetto (design concept). The naturalism even goes so far that there are Barberini bees crawling on it! In classic Baroque fashion, above the columns, the covering itself looks ready to move, and the tassles actually do move. The entire Baldacchino frames the niches, but also the apse decoration that would be completed under Alexander II.

Palazzo Barberini (1628-38)

Located on the Via delle Quattro Fontane, 13, 00184 Rome (see map here), the Barberini palace features a very modern plan with a split level garden. It is a suburban villa with urban elements. The shape reminds us of the Villa Farnesina, but the scale is much larger, more like that of the Palazzo Farnese. The fact that it is three stories reminds us of an urban palazzo, but the arcade on the ground floor and the U shape of the building call to mind suburban villas. So what we have is a villa plan and portico, but with an urban scale and three story urban palace feeling.

The perspectival feeling on the third story is given to Borromini, even though Bernini is credited with much of the building. Borromini is also credited with the monumental interior staircase. Borromini was often left in charge of areas of Bernini's work as he got more busy.

In the plan we can see that the portico, which seems simple at first, from the outside, runs deeply into the ground floor of the building. The use of double vaulting can be seen in the plan, as can the fact that hallways are still not present in the design of the palazzi. The rooms are still moved through by the use of interior doors.

Santa Susanna (1597-1603)

Located on the Largo Santa Susanna, 00187 Rome (see map here), Santa Susanna takes the first step from Il Gesu to a new Baroque style church. The center of the building is very strong, with both a vertical and horizontal emphasis. The scrollwork on the second floor is used to mask the transept and nave beyond. The use of the scrollwork device would become a standard in future churches. The extra end bay below which connects to the scrollwork gives the entire facade a sense of continuity down to the level of the pedastle and creates a triangular shape. On top of the cornice, there is a ballister, which is usually a device used for transition. In this instance, though, the only thing that there is to transition to is the heavens.

Facade of St. Peters (1626)

Carlo Moderno would be the winner of the contest to complete the façade for the new Saint Peters. He would also be responsible for extending the nave. The most important question that Moderno had to answer when working on St. Peters was how to connect the dome to the façade and existing architecture. He answered this question beautifully in his execution of the façade.

With St. Peters, Moderno would move in a different direction than he had in his previous work. He would not take very much from contemporary churches, either, and the façade of St. Peters would not be widely copied by the churches that were springing up around Rome for the new orders.

The largest concern in the creation of the façade was not masking the dome created by Michelangelo. Moderno created a rectangular-shaped facade that almost has a palace-like effect in it's rectangular, three-storied plan. This effect is mitigated by the presence of the dome, which acts almost like a pediment above the palace-like façade. Moderno used monumental orders to match the orders used on the rest of the building, setting them around larger and smaller windows and niches. The center of the building is built up and layered in a new way, with the rhythm following the receding and projecting cornice. There is a kind of plasticity of the orders, columns and pilasters. The central cornice seems to project forward in a way that insinuates a classical portico. The cornice is low, so it does not cover the dome, but it does overlap the attic story, which travels around the entire building.

Il Gesu (1568-75)

At this time in Rome, there were new orders springing up. Il Gesu would be one of the first of the new orders to build a church that will become a model for further buildings. The emergence of these orders meant that new buildings were being built to facilitate their worship as well as the living spaces of their sworn brother and sisters. Most of the churches and monasteries that were being built were medium-sized churches. The new orders could not afford large churches because most of them did not have the kind of money that they would need to afford them. The Jesuits were one such emerging order, and Il Gesu was their first church. The Jesuits were a somewhat militant order with the set goals of education and conversion. Their initiation as an actual sect of Christianity was supported by Charles Borromeo, who would later become Saint Charles. Located on the Piazza del Gesù, 00186, in Rome, the construction would utilize the architects and artisans that were working on the construction of New Saint Peters. During the construction, there were some creative differences between the patron (Allesandro Farnese) and the Jesuits. Allesandro involved himself in every aspect of the church, paying particular attention to the sound of the interior.

The first design was executed by Vignola and is not too different from what we have seen in some other facades that we have seen in that it is a façade that uses a temple front to deal with a building whose nave and side aisles make a temple front infeasible at best. This façade, though not different from some of the churches we have seen, is very different from what has been happening in Venice. In this initial sketch, what we see is a plan for a double tabernacle facade that uses scrolls to deal with the problem of the temple front as applied to a building with a nave and side aisles, a device that we also saw at Santa Maria Novella. The pedimental frame is a dominant motif in the façade, with a strong entabulature, a large pediment over the central portal and a large covering pediment overall. The façade as presented here does not feature a monumental order, which means that Saint Peters and the Capitoline Hill buildings were not influencing Vignola, despite being built at the same time. The plan is completely centralized, with paired pilasters, then engaged columns around the portal and surrounding the window bay above. Not only is the building horizontally symmetrical, but vertically as well, with niches over niches and a large, door-like opening over the central portal on the second floor.

The plan of the building is interesting in the way that the architects dealt with the transept and side aisles in such a way as to make the overall shape of the building less ungainly. The transept is very large (it's width is as large as the dome of the building), but suppressed, as are the side aisles, to make a basilica-shaped church. The chapels are carved into the side of the church with a passage in between them. This new openness had become a requirement at this point, after the Counsel of Trent decision to make the liturgy more accessible to the congregation. By opening up the church and moving the choir space to the area behind the altar, the altar is suddenly completely visible to the people watching the mass. The actual execution of the facade is different from Vignola's original plan. The decoration is simplified, with a much more emphasized focus on the center of the building. The central emphasis is achieved by making the decoration to either side of the central pediment and openings more simple and allowing those element to stand out more. The surrounding pilaster and column on the door differentiate it from the paired pilasters elsewhere on the facade. The pediment above the door is echoed by the one over the cornice. Both pediments are very strong and project and recess with the cornice.

The interior of the building as we see it today is not what was intended in this era. The late baroque decoration of Giovanni Battista Galilei was completed after the building itself was finished, the original decorations probably resembled the simplicity found on the interior of Palladio's churches.

Acqua Felice (Fountain of Moses)

The Acqua Felice is located on the Via dell'Acqua Felice, 00178, in Rome. Constructed in such a way as to echo the Triumphal arches of antiquity, the attic level of the fountain features a prominent Triumphal inscription. The statue of Moses below in the middle niche is meant to draw a connection between the patron, Sixtus V, and the prophet as both being bringers of water. Sixtus V would undertake several projects such as this one during his reign as Pope. His projects for urban transformation would reset the patterns of the city, creating new focal points for the population with piazzas. Sixtus V would also employ Domenico Fontana to make use of the obelisks that were lying around Rome at the time. He would have them placed in front of major monuments around Rome in order to guide people to important sites.

House of Giulio Romano, Mantua (1540)

Giulio Romano's house in Mantua (see map here) plays with the notion of the two story palace type. At the basement level, we can see a bit of the voussoirs that would show if the whole level were raised up and we could see the full windows. The string course above the first story almost looks like stitching, appearing in the spaces between the windows and disappearing behind the voussoirs. It is visible above the portal, where the arched entryway peels away the stone and leaves it exposed. The cornice bumps up strangely at the doorway, the arched voussoirs at the entryway topped by a geometric triangle. The windows on the top floor are recessed in less rusticated stone, their size a clear indication of the piano nobile. The attic windows are deeply embedded with festoons set in between them. As with the basement story, the attic windows seem to be not hidden, but rather to have special attention given to them. The whole effect of the façade is of a strong Mannerist ambiguity and layering.

Palazzo Thiene, Vicenza (1537-42)

The Palazzo Thiene is located on the Piazza Ferrarin, 2, 36016, in Thiene (see map here). Palladio came to the attention of the family in regard to this commission because of the competition for the Basilica. The facade on one side of the street had already been finished by Lorenzo da Bologna. Palladio chose to finish his part of the building in the Bramante style, with a two-story presentation, rusticated first floor, and orders on the second story. Palladio uses a rougher rustication than Bramante, but the influence is obvious. The coining on either side of the facade on the first floor is in a different stone, the contrast adds drama. The voussoirs over the windows on the lower floor are unique, with minor voussoirs inserted into major voussoirs for an interesting layered effect. The upper story features a doubled pilaster for the orders and alternating triangular and hemispherical pediments on the windows. There are two string courses encircling the building with a similar-looking entabulature. The entabulature continues the pedastle for the orders as part of the it's decoration.

Palazzo Iseppo-Porto, Vicenza (1549-52)

The Palazzo Iseppo-Porto is one of Palladio's buildings that would begin simultaneously with his work on the basilica. The facade and the interior are both symmetrical, with the exterior showing the influence of Bramante. The building presents as having two stories, with the lower story rusticated and the orders present on the second floor and the addition of an attic story. The attic story presents a problem with regard to how to present the orders. Palladio solves the problem by giving a small pedestal to the orders on that level and adding a statue to deal with the odd proportion of the orders in comparison to the second floor. The exterior decoration calls to mind San Michele and the northern Italian approach to decoration. As with most of the Renaissance palazzi that we have looked at, this palace mimics the houses of antiquity and opens into an atrium and an inner peristyle courtyard.

Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza (1550-57 – 17th century)

Located on the Piazza Giacomo Matteotti, 37-39, 36100, in Vicenza (see map here), the Palazzo Chiericati is an example of the Bramante palace type. Palladio did not see the palace as playing only a private role, but a public one as well. The loggia on either side of the main entrance, therefore, were intended as a gesture to the city. The second floor loggia would also be available to the public during parades and such, in order to afford them a better view of the city.

The whole building is raised on a platform. The plan is a stepped-back, three-part composition with three bays. The bays on either side feature the loggia which were open to the public, while the central bay on the second floor projects outward to indicate the entryway. The windows on the central bay on the second floor feature alternating triangular and hemispherical pediments. All of the windows and doors feature straight entabulatures. The balcony on the second floor also alternates balusters with podiums for the orders. Bays on either side end matched up with a pier, and the corners are handled without any strangeness to the transition with the orders.

This building makes it clear that, in 10 years, Palladio has mastered the vocabulary of an architect.

Palazzo Valmarana, Vicenza (1565-66)

The Palazzo Valmarana features a monumental order set up on a podium with indications of bases for the orders. The facade of the palazzo is a mass of windows and other architectural elements. The monumental pilasters that start on the first floor make their way up over the cornice separating the two floors of the palace. Behind the orders we can see the first story windows are even with the door and read the piano nobile as well as an attic and mezzanine story. The attic is separated off by a strong cornice. Below the windows on the second story, Palladio uses a balustrade to transition to the second floor. The entire facade is separated off from the buildings next to it by a shorter order on either end of the building with full size figures perched on top of them.

Villa Rotonda, Vicenza (begun 1551)

The Villa Rotonda is located on the Via della Rotonda, 45, 36100, in Vicenza (see map here). The exterior of the building features an obviously circular plan with a temple front and a dome. Designed to be a retreat from the city, this building was not intended, not to be lived in, but to be used for recreations such as feasts. The building's totally bilaterally symmetrical plan would not allow for very comfortable living, but does allow for beautiful surroundings.

The plan for the building is a circle in the square, which recalls Vitruvius. The proportion of each room is also bilaterally symmetrical, with each room a direct proportion of another room. This is probably one of the most influential buildings of Palladio's life. Thomas Jefferson even submitted the plan for this building as a possibility when the White House was being built.

Villa Pisani, Montagnana (1552-55)

Another example of a suburban villa, the Villa Pisani is located on the Via Borgo Eniano, 35044, in Montagnana (see map here). Originally located in a more agricultural area, the road that runs alongside it brought more people to the area and now it is more urban. Like the Villa Rotunda, the Villa Pisani is compact, with no large farm dependence.

The front of the building features a temple front with the first level in the style of a triumphal arch. The lower level features a doric order with a triglyph/metope frieze. The order above is ionic and supports a triangular pediment rising above a flat cornice.

Villa Emo, Fanzio (1564)

In the Villa Emo, we find a great example of the three part plan that would become popular in suburban villas in Italy. The rooms in all three wings of the villa are proportional to each other, and the building features strong classical elements. The enclosed portico is designed after a classic temple front, with large statues standing on top of the three corners of the pediment. The wings that extend to the side feature a classic colonnade.

Villa Barbaro, Maser (1557-58)

The Villa Barbaro is located on the Via Cornuda, 7, 31010, in Maser. Featuring illusionistic pantings inside and a façade with the circles and eagles of the Barbaro family, this building was largely planned and executed by the Barbero brothers with Palladio's assistance.

Behind the villa is a Nymphaeum decorated in a classical style. The pediment is a stretched triangle with alternating niches in hemispherical and rectangular shapes beneath. The pool beneath serves as a kitchen pond and runs off by the kitchen garden to water it.



There is also a Tempietto connected to the villa. In this, the Barbaro brothers and Palladio were definitely looking to the Pantheon for inspiration. The Tempietto is set up on a podium with a domed central space and a large, triangular pediment. The belltowers add a nice detail to the building.

San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (1560-80)

San Giorgio Maggiore is located on the Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore, in Venice (see map here). Palladio raised the pedestal that the building rested on up and placed the orders atop it in order to make the ceiling higher. San Giorgio possesses very strong modillions and Palladio made good use of Corinthian columns in the order. Looking at the church, it is clear that Palladio did not care to cover the entire church, but just the main area of the façade. The arms are executed in brick, as was common in Venice, where the materials for a building were not decided merely based on appearance, but on weight as well. In this building, as with Il Redentore, which would follow it, we can see that Palladio has made use of thermal windows, which he would have seen in the Roman baths. Also like Il Redentore, this building features a retrochoir behind the altar. The retrochoir was a reaction to the counsel of Trent, which decided that it was important to bing the mass to the people. To do that, the choir was moved from it's traditional place in the center of the church to prevent it from blocking the view of the congregation. In architecture, the counsel of Trent would influence the transition from Renaissance to Baroque architectural trends.

Il Redentore, Venice (1577-92)

Il Redentore, located on the Sestiere Giudecca 30133, in Venice (see map here), is a longitudinal church dedicated to Christ the Redeemer and built for the purpose of accommodating a yearly visit from the Doge of Venice. Like the church of San Giorgio Maggiore before it, this church presented the problem of how to deal with the high pedestals needed in construction. Palladio solved this problem by putting the entire building up on a podium.

On the facade of the building, the temple front seems to mask another layer behind. To either side of the temple pediment, end bits of a larger pediment show through with pilasters on either side. The pediment itself is a motif that is reflected several times in the facade, but in this building it does not get stretched out of proportion in order to reach the cornice of the dome. Palladio solves that problem in this building by creating an attic level to reach the cornice. The overall effect of the facade is of a series of planes projecting outward over one another to produce a strong, layered effect.

The interior of the church brings us one step closer to the full opening of the interior for sight lines to the high altar. Palladio has created side chapels for private worship where there once would have been a colonnade that would have blocked the view of the front of the church. Inside the church, we can see Palladio's use of vaulting and thermal windows. There is a strong sense of the enormity of the space with a sense of transitional spaces that vary in terms of purpose. The use of the orders is also very strong.

Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza (1584)

The Teatro Olimpico, located on the Piazza Giacomo Matteotti, 36100, in Vicenza (see map here), would be undertaken by Andrea Palladio, but not finished at the time of his death. After his death, the work was taken over by Vincenzo Scamozzi, with possible help from Palladio's son. The orchestra, seats and statues of the Olympian gods (fashioned after members of the Olympian academy who were sponsors of the building) were all taken from the design of classical theaters. The stage itself features three main entrances and two side entrances, with a proscenium arch at the center. The elaborate language in the design and detailing of the this building was considered highly appropriate because of the fact that it was a theater. The optical illusion used in the design is nothing less than genius, creating an illusion of space and of the ideal city. The design of this building would effect the ideas for staging and set design for another 100 years.

Basilica Palladiana, Venezia (1549-64)

Located in Venezia, this building by Palladio features the city's signature Venetian windows. The proportion of the column order is maintained around the entire exterior of the building, with paired engaged columns on the corners. The added feature of the small statues on the roof of the building to the verticality of the structure, while the ballister makes a neat transition between the sky and the building itself. The port holes and tandles are new additions to the building, as are the screens which were added to the portico to keep it from falling.

La Zecca (the Mint), Venice (1537-45)

La Zecca is located on the Piazza San Marco in Venice (see map here), though it's facade sets it apart from the rest of the buildings that make up the square. There is no centralization in the building and no strong indication of an entryway for a very good reason. This building was the Mint and Sansovino planned for there to be no indication of the entrance to make stealing more difficult and to prevent fires within.
The decor on the outside of the building is very rusticated, with similar rustication on the pillars that we saw at the Villa Madama. The rustication is very heavy, covering not only the column orders but the entire first story and the voussiors over the first story archways. The building is presented as having three stories, with a cornice and lintel as strong as the building itself. There are two cornices because the building was originally only one story with the second and third added later on.

Libraria Marciana, Venice (1536-88)

Located on Saint Mark's Square in Venice (see map here), this well-known building was executed by Jacopo Sansovino in 1536-88. The language of the building is appropriate for a library, expressing two stories with 21 bays. The decor is very festive, a match for the gothic style by appropriate for learning and humanism. Despite that festivity, there is an air of ceremony about the structure itself, despite the brightly colored chairs that strew its colonnaded entrance. The decor includes a triglyph and metope area as well as festoons and sea creatures. The arcade is handled almost like a motif, and in the arcade Sansovino quotes Bramante, using his arch to carry a ballister and pairing monumental columns with a straight entabulature.

Palazzo Corner della Ca' Grande, Venice (1533-70)

Located near the Piazza San Marco (see map here), this building was a private commission taken on by Sansovino and executed in Bramante's style. The building is three stories because of the limited space allowed to spread horizontally along the canal. The first story is rusticated heavily, with rustication over the columns and a segmental lintel. The second and third stories are very similar to one another, with paired columns framing segmental-pedimented windows. On each level, a low ballister runs the length of the cornice, stopping intermittently to allow space for the podium on which the columns stand. There is decoration over the windows and in the brackets, as well as the spandrels created by the curving pediments. This building contains within it a Roman-style courtyard. On the interior all stories retain the horizontal-block feeling expressed by the main shape of the building itself.

Palazzo Grimani at S. Luca, Venice (1556)

Located at the estuary of the canal de San Luca (see map here the Palazzo Grimani is number 9), this building is an example of a Venetian palazzo that, because of it's location on the water and the lack of space on the Grand Canal, is perforce long and narrow in its plan. This building is a change in design from the Ca d'Oro. No more do we see the Gothic designs that we associate with Venice and the north, this building shifts to a purely Renaissance ideal in its design.

Of course, Renaissance ideas brought a problem to the water-based atmosphere of Venice. Renaissance plans call for marble, for one thing, so the Palazzo Grimani would need extra support. The interior would also be effected because the artist must work with older ideas of design with regard to lighting while implementing Renaissance windows. The lighting situation is elegantly handled by grouping the windows at the front of the house in order to supply light to the entire interior.

The first floor is the water story, and here we find no more rustication as we have seen, which makes the first story into a main story. At the corners, pilasters are used to wrap the orders around to the sides of the building. The rhythm is complex, alternating fenestration with bays, decorated keystones and victories in the spandrels. There are indications of secondary stories in between the main stories, as with other Renaissance homes. The second and third stories are fairly simple in that they are copies of one another. In between the stories is a baluster. The windows have an arched frame with a square window. The entire building is framed by a noticeably larger cornice that matches the building as a whole.

Ca d'Oro, Venice (1422-ca. 1440)

Located on the Corte Barbaro, Cannaregio, 4604 30131, in Venice (see map here), this building is a perfect example of the mixture of Byzantine and Gothic ideas that permeated the architecture of this sea-trading city during the period before Renaissance ideas reached it. The buildings were built on wooden pilings, so they could not be too heavy and had to be capable of flexing because of the unstable building area. Properties that fronted on the Grand canal would have very narrow fronts seated on properties that would permeate far to their backs. Very large windows were required on all levels in order to admit light, but not all people could afford such luxuries. Most of the buildings were made of brick and some which were very expensive (like this one) would have marble fronts. The quatrefoil motif was very popular (a Gothic design) as were rounded arches (influences of Byzantine and Romanesque architecture). The asymmetrical organization and large windows are reflected in the plan, with a large central room, or spine, designed to pull light down the center of the building so that it could dissipate into side rooms. All Venetian houses had wells, but few more wealthy families could afford to have their wells inside, and some even had interior gardens, like the Ca d'Oro.

Palazzo Canossa, Verona (late 1530s)

The Palazzo Canossa, located on the Corso Cavour, 48 37121, in Verona (see map here), employs a similar approach to that taken by Sanmicheli in the Palazzo Bevilacqua. The building has a rusticated lower level and a three-arched entryway. The hinting at further stories at the mezzanine, basement and attic levels, is no doubt the influence of Bramante in the construction. On the top floor, the orders are paired around regular window frames with arched tops and straight entabulatures linking them together. That strong connection is continued with the base of the windows that run together in a sort of string course that recesses and projects with the orders, providing a platform for them. The balustrade above the cornice is new, having been finished by Giuseppe Antonio Schiavi in 1761.

Palazzo Bevilacqua, Verona (1530)

The Palazzo Bevilacqua, located on the Via Palazzo 37035 San Giovanni Ilarione, in Verona (see map here), is an example of the Bramante type of palazzo. The rustication on the ground floor runs over the orders, unabated. The second floor uses a ballister as a transitional device, with a column order set above the columns beneath to continue the building's vertical focus. The portal on the front of the building is not centralized, but far to the left, while the rest of the building remains centrally focused. This may indicate that the building was intended to be centralized, but was not completed. The décor on the whole of the building is grotesque, with strong similarities to central Italy. The pilasters, fenestration, and lintles all make use of layering. The fluting is different on each of the columns that decorate the columned bays and in each of the spandrels a winged victory is carved in relief. This, in addition to the heavy modillions and the balcony across the front of the building, creates a complex upper story. The first level windows are much more simple, being simple arches with triangular lintles. There is a bit of a Roman influence in the lower level, with busts featured in the voussoirs of the windows. The frieze on the attic level features regular windows and a very complex decoration of festoons with busts.

Villa dei Vescovi, Luvigliano (1535)

Located on the Via dei Vescovi 35038 (see map here), the Villa dei Vescovi would become a building type that would permeate throughout Italy. It possesses a large, rusticated podium out of which comes the grand staircase. Above, on the second level, the arcade is carried on piers with a double pilaster on each corner and a single pilaster on each pier. The frieze zone is decorated with a triglyph and metope ornament. Above the windows, the voussoirs possess busts instead of keystones with winged victories in the spandrels. In the center bay the voussoir is emphasized by a larger shield for the head to rest against.

Loggia Cornaro, Padua (1524)

Located on the Via Melchiorre Cesarotti, 21, 35123, in Padua (see map here), illustrates an advance in the architectural ideas that were shown at the Loggia del Concillio. In this building we see a movement towards a more classical ideal. Colors have been thrown by the wayside, letting the natural grandeur of the marble speak for itself. The building itself is therefore much more classical and feels more monumental to the viewer. The alternating segmental and triangular pedimented windows on the upper level are reminiscent of the Palazzo Farnese and a nice touch to a classical facade.

Loggia del Consiglio, Verona (1500)

Located on the Piazza dei Signori, 37121, in Verona (see map here), the Loggia del Consiglio stands as the main government building of the city. The building is constructed to resemble the wing of a Roman forum, so it reflects classical ideals in its form and construction. The piano nobile features painted decoration and double light windows. The use of the later informs the viewer that the building is from the early Renaissance, though the small statues that grace the top of the building and add to its verticality are very modern innovations. The front of the building is also slightly odd because it is not quite centered. The center of the building features a pier rather than a bay, and where the eye expects another bay farther along in the rhythm, the entranceway makes that impossible and we are instead given another column. Piers terminate either side of the building, including the entrance into a side alley on the left side. Above, in the piano nobile, the rhythm is a window for every other arch rather than for every arch, which makes for a strong triangular composition in the rhythm, linking what is essentially a double window with a double bay. Another detail that connects the top and bottom levels is a cross in the spandrels on the lower level that echoes the cross under the pediments of the windows on the upper level. Because of all of these elements, the composition works both horizontally and vertically.

As with all of the buildings that we have seen, materials play a huge part in construction. Verona is famous for what is called "rosso di Verona," or red marble (for more information, see this link). As a result, we can see that this building does not use identically colored stone throughout. The columns are alternating red and white, and there are other color differences that we can see in the marble elsewhere.

Palazzo de Te, Mantua (1526-34)

Located on the Viale Te, 46100, in Mantua, (see map here) the Palazzo del Te is an example of a Mannerist suburban villa that will be highly reproduced. This palace has been identified as Mannerist because of the use of orders that break the cornice above the window and reach up to the Doric triglyphs and metopes. The building features three entries into the vestibule area and rectangular, regular windows. Inside the vestibule the orders are rustic looking and go back to an antique example of unfinished stone as well as an antique Roman coffered ceiling. Another Mannerist element occurs in the frieze area, where the triglyph slips downward for no architectural reason. It is possible that the slipping triglyph comes from some other little known classic building that does not follow the accepted Vitruvian method.

Pitti Palace, Florence (1558-70)

The Pitti Palace is located on the Via Piazza de' Pitti 50125, in Florence. (see map here) The front façade looks much like the Medici palace in the expression of the levels and the voussoirs. A new element is the balusters on each level attached to the cornices. Another unique element is the extending arms on either side of the main, central building. The extending arms make the overall shape of the building much more imposing than the regular, armless palazzi that we have seen up until now.

The overall shape of the building is a rough H, with the back that faces on the garden in a U shape. This building and the surrounding garden represent the shift in thinking from a formal, private garden to a park. The plan of the garden shows both wild and formal elements that we would expect to see in a park. The U-shape at the back of the building hugs a fountain at its center and mimics the shape of an enclosed, square courtyard minus the fourth wall. The rustication on the back of the building is very different from that on the front. The orders that are present are very strange in their rustication and create a Mannerist vibration by taking classic superimposition and using it in a different way. The first floor features an ionic order with a corinthian order on the second. There is a plastic sort of variation between the two floors, with the bottom order presented as a pilaster and the second floor a more pronounced column. The entablature above the windows on the second floor takes the voussoirs shape and presses them upwards. As with some other Mannerist buildings, we can see the recession of planes backwards.

Casino of Pius IV, Vatican Gardens, Rome (1560-63)

Pirro Ligorio, who created the Nicchione in the Belvedere Cortyard, added this casino (or small house) in the Vatican gardens. (see map here) The building itself was meant to be used for eating and such, so it does not have much interior space. It does, however, provide a small dining space open to breezes and sounds off of the garden through the open portico. Although it is a vertically-oriented rectangular building, it is not meant to be a belvedere, so it is not tall enough to provide a view of the gardens from above. The façade of the building is almost a printed page come to life in the extreme detail utilized. The designs are right out of the tradition of Raphael. The exterior of the building is a contradiction to the role of architecture as the expression of structure in that it almost denies it. The building looks like it is three stories, but it is only two on the interior, which is unlike some of what we have seen in some of the other buildings in the cities of Florence and Rome, where the exterior expression is of three stories but the interior is five stories. Facing it is another building with the same architectural sense of decoration.

Porta Pia, Rome (1561)

The Porto Pia is located on the Via 20 Settembre, 2, in Rome. (see map here) The question raised by this structure is what is appropriate for a city gate as far as decoration. What works for one structure will not work for another. The Mannerist style in this case evinces itself as a more satiric and rustic style of architecture. Again we see layering as a key element of Mannerist vocabulary.

The windows are carried on brackets with festoons for decoration and classic triangular pediments above. The floating decorative elements above the first floor window level give that sense of ambiguity for which Mannerist architecture is known. The second level has a frame-like window feature with scrollwork in the pediment. The level above has a circular frame covered with a drape-like item hanging above.

The pediment on the central opening is not broken, but the lintel is stepped back and gives a broken feeling to the pediment. The central bay has a coat of arms with a round medallion and drapery above it echoing the third level decoration. From Michelangelo’s sketches for the gate and other contemporary sketches (like the one by Faleti to the left), the origin of the scrollwork on the termination is uncertain. In his sketches he seems to have been going for a more classic termination, so it may have been changed after his death.

Buontalenti Doorway, Uffizi, Florence (1560-74)

This door is a prime example of Mannerist expression in architecture in its use of the orders. The pediment is broken by the weight of the bust sitting on top of it. The Mannerist idea has to do with anti-function. Mannerists know the rules and the way that architecture is supposed to work and they play with it so that it does not function in the way it is intended, and that is done in the pediment. The cornice is hidden behind the doorframe and it gives a sense of multiple layers that we have seen before in the execution of other Mannerist buildings.

Farnese Palace, Caprarola (1530, 1556-53)

The palace is located on the Via Galileo Galilei, 01032 Caprarola VT, Italy (see map here) in a very wild, wooded area and does a lot as far as the transition from the wild surroundings to the architectural space of the Palazzo itself. There are two gardens, one for winter and one for summer. Between the wild space that surrounds the property and the formal gardens are organized hunting grounds which serve as natural transitional spaces towards the more regimented natural space created in the gardens. The formal gardens are organized into typical quadrants and make use of the pergala as an additional transitional element between the interior and exterior, nature and architecture.

The processional that leads up to the building is not as straightforward as the usual and plays into the Mannerist idea of game playing and misdirection. Usually palaces would have a circular area for coaches to pull into to use to turn around. At the Farnese Palace, however, the courtyard is a little different. Coaches, when arriving at the palazzo, would have to travel into a circular interior courtyard in order to turn around.

The façade at the front of the building makes good use of coining as a framework and has a strong central emphasis which is strengthened by the staircase. The fenestration shows a strong piano nobile and progresses nicely through the five visible floors. The elaboration on the fenestration is a habit and a feature of Mannerist artists.

The plan shows clusters of private rooms with large public rooms. There is still no hallway between rooms and the interior doors allow passage from room to room. In the courtyard you can see that ornament is increasing. The courtyard sports a ground floor that is rusticated and has no order with an ionic order on the upper level. The use of the orders matches the façade on the front of the palazzo. The rhythm is not regular and equal but complex with an alternating sequence of niches with columns and arches. The niches are layered like the detailing on the Farnese palace in Rome and the Villa Giulia. The internal portico is on both levels and the lower level portico has openings into the stables.

The Capitoline Hill, Rome (1561-1654)

The Capitoline Hill is located at the Piazza Campidoglio 00186, in Rome (see map here). The hill itself was largely in disarray when Charles V led a Triumph past it. The appearance embarrassed the Pope and the city in the face of the Emperor. Michelangelo was called in to help make the hill look presentable. The first thing that he was asked to do was to move the statue of Marcus Aureleus to the center of the square. As one of the rare surviving bronze sculptures of the ancient age, it represented survival despite the odds. Most bronze sculptures from ancient times were scrapped and used for other sculptures and metal work. And if Marcus hadn’t been mistaken for the first Christian emperor Constantine, it never would have survived that long. The equestrian sculpture was a serious goal for Renaissance sculptors because of the amount of materials needed and the difficulty as far as the skills involved.

Michelangelo undertook a series of projects to reform the complex. First he undertook the approach to the top of the hill. He began with leveling out and paving the hill and then moved on to change the architecture by adding new facades to the three palazzi that face the piazza. When creating the space on the hill, there were problems of transition from the piazza Venezia below. Michelangelo solved that problem by creating the cordonata staircase in 1561. The stairs were created so that a horse could climb them, with wide stairs and rounded edges that a horse could easily navigate. The stairs themselves are shaped like trapezoids rather than rectangles to create a visual impression of distance through optical enhancement. The position of the buildings at the top of the stairs enhances this feeling, as does the oval-shaped rosette that decorates the pavement. The feeling of the space brings up the feelings of Mannerist influence that Michelangelo gave in the Medici tombs. The use of non-static shapes create a dynamic axis and a sense of movement in the space.

The façades of the palaces have colossal orders applied to them. The external appearance is of a single story façade with a two story façade layered behind it. That layering of the façade is looked at as Michelangelo playing with a Mannerist vocabulary in the ambiguity of space and depth. The lower story features an ionic order, the upper story a plain set of windows surrounded on either side by orders. The orders from the lower level extend up above the balcony on the second floor. Each building shows an elegant use of the orders in turning the corners. The buildings are all centrally-oriented with a large central bay and balustrade.

This project represents one of the many projects that Michelangelo would begin which would not be finished until long after his death. Giacopo della Porta would succeed him in completing this project as well as St. Peters. The statues at the top of the stairs were not placed there until after his death, although they were executed before. The façades of the Palazzi that surround the piazza would take 100 years to complete, much like St. Peters. The Palazzo dei Conservatori would take from 1564-84, the Palazzo dei Senator from 1573-1612 and the Palazzo dell Nuovo from 1603-54.

Palazzo Farnese, Rome (1517-46)

The Palazzo Farnese is located on the Piazza Farnese, 00186, in Rome. (see map here) Patronized by the Grand Cardinal Farnese, this building went through some big changes during its construction. In 1541, new idea was thought up for the palace with part of the piano nobile already finished. Antonio da Sangallo the younger was hired to expand the rear of the building. In 1546, the façade was completed up to the cornice. A competition to complete the building was won by Michelangelo (If we are to believe Vasari, Antonio da Sangallo died shortly afterward of shame from having lost to Michelangelo).

The façade has the feeling of some of the older palaces that we have seen in and around Rome and Florence. The framing of the building and the central emphasis mark a new palace type for Rome and the fenestration would be a model for other palaces. The windows on the first floor have knee brackets beneath and straight lintels. The second floor alternates with triangular and half-circular pediments above the windows. The third floor features all triangular pediments with alternating interior triangles and half-circles. The coining that frames the building on both sides is matched by the rustication of the central bay. The cornice is very original with a fleur-de-lis (or lilly) motif in the brackets and classic egg and dart molds and modillions.

The plan is a basic block shape with a central courtyard with strong corner piers, dog-leg stairs and interior doors as a means to get from room to room. The courtyard was used to display an extensive sculpture collection. The third story, executed by Michelangelo, features the layering effect that we saw on the third floor of the palazzi that frame the Capitoline Hill. The corner pilasters show eight or nine recessing steps back into space. The windows have segmental pediments carried on columns. There is a visible mezzanine level and a frieze on the second story. The first level meets piers and leaves columns on piers and not molded together.

Palazzo Massimi, Rome (1535)

The Palazzo Massimi is located on the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II, 00186, in Rome (see map here). Peruzzi’s commission for this building was for an exceptionally long space in the palazzo which included the garden and portico. Giorgio Vasari refers to the front of the building as an oval rather accurately. The façade is very different looking. It has none of the horizontal or vertical divisions that we are used to seeing in the façades of city palaces. The windows feature foreign scroll motifs that remind us of the Mannerist style being introduced by Michelangelo. The solid over the void of the portico combined with the strange dark feeling created by the wide central bay makes the façade even more strange to the viewer. The lower story feels very plastic and mobile with the upper stories sitting flat above it. The overall feeling is a strange but pleasing one.

San Andrea in Via Flaminia, Rome (1550)

San Andrea in Via Flaminia is located in Rome on the Via Flaminia, 00196 (see map here). Constructed by Giacomo Vignola in 1550, the church itself is hardly more than a chapel with a small, oval shaped plan and a simple dome. From the outside the influence of the Pantheon is obvious in the triangular cornice and hemispherical dome and expression of the cornice.

Villa Giulia, Rome

Comissioned by Pope Julius II, this villa is located on the Via di Villa Giulia, 00197, Rome (see map here).

The villa Giulia is a suburban villa that was heavily influenced by the belvedere courtyard in it's layout and the expression of it's stories. The villa is only a small portion of the whole structure, the rest of the structure is a pleasure garden featuring a two story loggia.


When looking down the length of the first garden it seems that you can proceed directly through the separating structure and into the second, but when you actually approach a sunken garden bars your passage, forcing you to walk either right or left in order to continue farther into the structure.

Medici Tombs, Florence

The Medici Tombs are located beneath the church of San Lorenzo in Florence (see map here). Construction on the tomb was begun in 1524-6, but in 1534 Michelangelo was called away to Rome. He would not return to Florence in his lifetime, so after his departure he worked almost by remote control.

Created as the burial places for four members of the Medici family, this small room created a sizable design problem for Michelangelo when he undertook it. Simply stated, the problem was how he could fit four tombs in a small room such as this one and still leave room for an altar and an entryway into the room? Michelangelo solved this problem by building two tombs on facing walls and leaving the third wall for an altar. The motifs that are shown in the tombs are echoed from elsewhere in the church, such as the geometric shapes on the ceiling and the green molding that edges out the architecture. He emphasized the white and earth-green color scheme that was so typical of Florence by adding white marble to the mix. The use of the petra sorrena in the room ties it back to the old sacristy.

The dome of the tomb is a very elegant homage to Brunelleschi, with classical coffering that recalls the Pantheon. The visible coffering and the use of medallions in spandrels is classic Brunelleschi.

The tombs themselves show a very complex use of classical motifs. The paired columns on either side of the seated figures as well as the scrollwork and the curved lintles on top of the openings to either side show a heavy reliance on classical themes. But this room has frequently been pointed out as heavy evidence of Michelangelo as the forerunner of Mannerism. The elongated, elaborate figures that lounge atop the sarcophagi are considered strongly Mannerist. In the architecture, there are strong architectural elements located over voids in doorways and windows. The feeling that these elements creates is one of ambiguous space.

For more information on San Lorenzo itself, click here.

Madonna di San Biagio, Montepulciano

Madonna di San Biagio is located on the Via di San Biagio, 53045, in Montepulciano (see map here). Constructed by Antonio da Sangallo, the plan contains Bramante-esque ideas that would be used in the construction of Saint Peters in Rome. The dome of the church is almost hemispherical, but the whole of the dome appears more vertical than hemispherical. The outer plan mimics the original plan for Saint Peters that can be seen on the contemporary commemorative coin. The dome in addition to the triangular pediment seems more in keeping with Bramante's plan for the exterior than the final appearance of Saint Peters would be (see more on da Sangallo's contribution to new Saint Peters here).

The church was completed up to the base of the dome by 1552. Work on the dome began in 1554. The elevation of the dome up to the drum was completed by his death, but the upper part of the dome was not completed under his direction. The building adheres to a very central plan with only a slight elevation and the addition of a portico to show the entrance.